Pharaoh was the term used by all the rulers of Ancient Egypt, even when Egypt was ruled by foreign kings such as the Persians or Libyans. Even the Roman emperors were known as pharaoh in Egypt after the incorporation of the country into the Roman empire by Augustus. The pharaohs were dynastic and the throne was hereditary, but there are many instances of either fratricide or usurpation, and if the pharaoh died childless it was usual for their successor to be the Vizier (prime minister) or other senior official.

The first pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
The first pharaoh of both Egypts (Upper and Lower) was either Narmer or Hor-Aha. In Ancient Egyptian legend, the pharaoh who united the kingdoms was known as Menes, who was ruler of the Upper kingdom. Unfortunately historians have been unable to conclusively identify which of either Narmer or Hor-Aha was Menes. From the unification onwards pharaohs were always represented wearing a double crown representing the crowns of both Upper and Lower Egypt.

The pharaoh's role
The pharaohs were the head of an increasingly complex civilization administered by various classes of priests and officials. By the time of the Old Kingdom (c3100BC-2250BC) they were believed to be gods present on Earth, and they later adopted the title of son of Ra, the Sun god. Under the Third Dynasty the first efficient bureaucracy was established. Pharaohs, especially the early pharaohs, often led their armies in battle. Rameses II fought the Hittites at Kadesh in 1300BC, the first fully recorded battle in history. One of the most well known pharaohs is Horemheb (c1320-1292BC), who was the former commander-in-chief of Tutankhamun (1333-1324BC).

Rivals for power
At the end of the Old Kingdom around 2250BC, the provincial governors were powerful local rulers. The Middle Kingdom (2134-1784BC) saw the pharaohs re-establish dominance over the kingdom and the local governors restricted in their power. The second intermediate period after the Middle Kingdom was a period where rival dynasties ruled in Upper and Lower Egypt, and foreign invaders threatened the land. Ahmose I was the founder of the New Kingdom (1570-1070BC) which saw Ancient Egypt reunified again. However the pharaohs were in a constant struggle against both senior officials and the priests of the major temples. After the death of Rameses III, the New Kingdom declined with the rise in power of the army and the priests of Amun.

Tomb builders
With the concept of the afterlife such an important part of Ancient Egyptian life, the Pharaohs usually began preparing for their death as soon as they took the throne. In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, the pharaohs were entombed in a pyramid, the first true pyramid being built by Snefru in the Fourth Dynasty. His son, Khufu, was the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Later pharaohs lacked the resources of the Old Kingdom, and their tombs were more modest. Temples were built with underground passages to the tomb of the pharaoh and the tombs of his court. The Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs began the practice of hiding their tombs in the Valley of Kings to avoid falling victim to tomb robbers. Unfortunately the valley's location became known, and most tombs were robbed over the following centuries. The exception was Tutankhamun, whose tomb was found intact by Howard Carter in 1922.

The end of the pharaohs
The last native rulers of Ancient Egypt were the Thirtieth Dynasty, which ended after the land's reconquest by the Persian kings. The Persians in turn were usurped as rulers by the Greeks under Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and the resulting Ptolemaic dynasty was the last that is conventionally recognized by historians, ending with the suicide of Cleopatra in 30BC.